Yemen in Crisis Read online

  Helen Lackner has spent the past four decades researching Yemen and has worked in the country for fifteen years. She is a research associate at the London Middle East Institute at SOAS, University of London; editor of the Journal of the British–Yemeni Society; and is a regular contributor to Oxford Analytica’s briefs and openDemocracy. Her books include Why Yemen Matters: A Society in Transition and Yemen and the Gulf States: The Making of a Crisis.

  ALSO BY HELEN LACKNER

  Editor

  Yemen and the Gulf States: The Making of A Crisis

  (with Daniel Varisco)

  Why Yemen Matters: A Society in Transition

  Yemen into the Twenty-First Century: Continuity and Change

  (with Kamil Mahdi and Anna Wuerth)

  Author

  PDR Yemen: Outpost of Socialist Development in Arabia

  A House Built on Sand: A Political Economy of Saudi Arabia

  Helen Lackner

  YEMEN

  IN CRISIS

  The Road to War

  First published by Verso 2019

  First published 2017 in Great Britain by Saqi Books under the title

  Yemen in Crisis: Autocracy, Neo-Liberalism and the Disintegration of a State

  © Helen Lackner 2017, 2019

  Preface to the US edition © Helen Lackner 2019

  Frontispiece: Sana‘a, Yemen © Ron Waddington, 2013. Original in colour. Used under a

  Creative Commons attribution: creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/

  All rights reserved

  The moral rights of the author have been asserted

  1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2

  Verso

  UK: 6 Meard Street, London W1F 0EG

  US: 20 Jay Street, Suite 1010, Brooklyn, NY 11201

  versobooks.com

  Verso is the imprint of New Left Books

  ISBN-13: 978-1-78873-553-7

  ISBN-13: 978-1-78873-554-4 (US EBK)

  British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

  A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

  Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

  A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

  Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon CR0 4YY

  For Jamal.

  Thanks for being a wonderful human being,

  principled, caring, and kind in the face of an unjust world.

  And for your children,

  hoping that they will live in a happier Yemen.

  Contents

  Maps

  Glossary

  Note on Transliteration and Abbreviations

  Timeline

  Preface to the US Edition

  Preface

  1. How the 2011 Uprising and the Transition Led to War

  2. Yemen and the World

  3. The Two Yemeni Republics and Unification

  4. Islamism: Reality and Myth

  5. The Huthi Movement: From Nowhere to Centre Stage

  6. Southern Separatism in Perspective

  7. From Tribes to Elites

  8. Resources Scarcity and Their Capture: Matters of Life and Death

  9. The Economy

  10. The Rural-Urban Nexus

  Conclusion: Whither Yemen?

  Notes

  Select Bibliography and Further Reading

  Index

  YEMEN IN ITS REGIONAL ENVIRONMENT

  YEMEN’S PRINCIPAL PHYSICAL FEATURES AND INFRASTRUCTURE

  MAP OF YEMEN SHOWING ADMINISTRATIVE ENTITIES

  Glossary

  Akhdam: also known as muhamasheen; status acquired by birth, most despised social group found throughout the country, main occupations are begging and cleaning.

  Al-Ahmar family: leading shaykhly family of Hashed confederation. Since the death of Abdullah Husayn in 2007, his sons have shared a group of prominent roles. Sadeq is shaykh mashaykh (chief shaykh or tribal leader) of Hashed, Hashim is the military leader, and Hamid the main political leader. Joint leaders of the Islah party representing its tribal component.

  Ali Mohsen al-Ahmar: military leader from same village as Saleh, he is not related to the other frequently mentioned al-Ahmar. Was close associate of Saleh since the 1970s; after years of increasing rivalry, the break took place in March 2011. In 2017 vice president to Hadi, Sunni fundamentalist on the margin of jihadism.

  Ali Salem al-Beedh: former General Secretary of the YSP, effective ruler of PDRY (South Yemen) between 1986 and 1990, then vice president of ROY between unification and 1994 civil war. Lives in exile.

  AQAP: al-Qa‘ida in the Arabian Peninsula, headquartered in Yemen; established in 2009.

  Believing Youth: Zaydi revivalist movement started by the Huthi family in the 1990s. Some members went to Iran to study. Became the Huthi movement.

  General People’s Congress: political organisation, established in 1982, ie. when political parties were illegal, bringing together influential people of all kinds whose common factor was, and remains, ensuring Saleh retains major political role.

  Abdu Rabbu Mansur Hadi: President of the internationally recognised government since 2012, Vice President to Saleh from 1994 onwards. Military southerner from Abyan who supported Ali Nasser in 1986 and moved to Sana‘a at that time.

  Hashed: one of Yemen’s major tribal confederations (see Al-Ahmar).

  Hiraak: term used to describe the collective southern separatist movement; it is composed of a very large number of entities with very similar names, few of which include more than a few members. Most of them based in Aden, but with origins mainly in al-Dhala‘, Lahej and Abyan Governorates. Other main base in Hadramaut.

  Huthi movement: also known as Ansar Allah; originating in Sa‘ada Governorate in the far north of Yemen, it is a family-based movement of Zaydi revivalists whose only ideological characteristic is belief that sada [descendants of the prophet] are the only rightful rulers. Involved in six wars against the Saleh regime between 2004 and 2010, now allied with Saleh in fight against the internationally recognised government and the Saudi-led coalition supporting it.

  Islah party: officially the Yemeni Congregation for Reform. Political party established in 1990 combining Sunni Islamism of the Muslim Brotherhood variety, a more extremist faction led by al-Zindani, and a third one composed of northern tribesmen, mostly from the Hashed confederation (led by al-Ahmar family).

  Joint Meeting Parties: coalition of opposition parties established in 2003, composed of Islah, Yemeni Socialist Party, two sada parties (al-Haq and the Union of Popular Forces), the Nasserist Unionist Party and the Baath. Since 2015 most of these are split between the Huthi-Saleh alliance and the internationally recognised government.

  Ali Nasser Mohammed: former leader of PDRY from Abyan, led the failed coup in Aden in 1986, then joined Saleh in YAR, living in exile since unification. Occasionally mentioned as a possible interim leader.

  Sada [sg sayyed]: small social group based on inherited status, claiming descent from the Prophet; there are both Shafi‘ and Zaydi sada.

  Salafi: believer in returning to the original roots of Islam, fundamentalist rejecting any interpretation; wants Quranic prescriptions to be implemented literally; a Sunni trend.

  Ali Abdullah Saleh: President of YAR from 1978 and then ROY until 2012, head of General People’s Congress, military man from Sanhan tribe, a minor component of Hashed federation. In 2017 officially allied with Huthis though rivalry for leadership active.

  Shafi‘: branch of Sunni Islam prevalent throughout Yemen, except the central and northern highlands; main characteristic is tolerance and flexibility.

  Wadi: river bed, mostly dry, subject to flash floods.

  Waqf (pl. Awqaf): religious endowment.

 
Zaydi: branch of Shi‘i Islam found in the central and northern highlands of Yemen. Theologically far closer to Sunni Islam than to Shi‘i, until the current war there was little to differentiate followers from either creed who prayed together and celebrated the same ceremonies.

  Abdul Majeed al-Zindani: prominent Islamist politician in Yemen.

  Aydaroos al-Zubeidi: Southern separatist leader, governor of Aden (2015–17) and joint leader of Southern Transitional Council established in May 2017.

  Notes on Transliteration

  and Abbreviations

  Transliteration has been kept as simple as possible. The symbol ‘has been used for the letter ‘ayn. When an Arabic word or name which has entered the English lexicon appears, its customary English spelling has been retained. With respect to names of people, I use the transliteration individuals use for themselves, which may lead to some inconsistencies.

  ACC Arab Cooperation Council

  AQAP al-Qa‘ida in the Arabian Peninsula

  CBY Central Bank of Yemen

  CDC Constitutional Drafting Committee

  COCA Central Organisation for Control and Audit

  CSF Central Security Forces

  CTU Counter Terrorism Unit

  EFARP Economic, Financial and Administrative Reform Programme

  FDI Foreign Direct Investment

  FLOSY Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen

  FOY Friends of Yemen

  GARWSP General Authority for Rural Water Supply Projects

  GCC Gulf Cooperation Council

  GPC General People’s Congress

  HRP (UN) Humanitarian Response Plan

  HTB Higher Tender Board

  IDA International Development Association (concessional branch of the World Bank)

  IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development

  IFI International Financial Institution

  ILO International Labour Organisation

  IMF International Monetary Fund

  JMP Joint Meeting Parties

  MAF Mutual Accountability Framework

  MAN Movement of Arab Nationalists

  MTR Mid-Term Review

  NACA National Anti-Corruption Authority

  NDC National Dialogue Conference

  NLF National Liberation Front

  NWSSIP National Water Sector Strategy and Investment Programme

  ODA Official Development Assistance

  OFID OPEC Fund for International Development

  PNPA Peace and National Partnership Agreement

  PDRY People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (1970–1990)

  PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper

  PRSY People’s Republic of South Yemen (1967–1970)

  PWP Public Works Project

  ROY Republic of Yemen

  SFD Social Fund for Development

  SFYP Second Five-Year Plan

  SPC Supreme Political Council

  SRC Supreme Revolutionary Committee

  STC Southern Transitional Council

  SWF Social Welfare Fund

  TPSD Transitional Programme for Stabilization and Development

  UAE United Arab Emirates

  UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees

  UNSC United Nations Security Council

  UNVIM United Nations Verification and Inspection Mechanism

  USAID United States Agency for International Development

  WB World Bank

  WFP World Food Programme

  WTO World Trade Organisation

  YAR Yemen Arab Republic

  YCLU Yemen Confederation of Labour Unions

  YECO Yemen Economic Corporation

  YLNG Yemen Liquefied Natural Gas

  YR Yemeni Riyal

  YSP Yemeni Socialist Party

  Timeline

  1839 Britain occupies Aden.

  1872 Ottomans occupy Sana‘a, having ruled parts of the area at various points in the past.

  1905 Border established between British Protectorates and Ottoman controlled area.

  1918 Muttawakilite Zaydi Imamate re-established in Sana‘a after Ottoman defeat in World War I.

  1934 Britain and Imamate agree on border. War between Saudi Arabia and Imamate won by Saudi Arabia, who take over the provinces of Asir, Najran and Jizan, initially on 20-year agreement.

  1948 Assassination of Imam Yahia. After short ‘liberal’ interlude, Imam Ahmed takes over and his troops sack Sana‘a. He spends most of his Imamate in Taiz.

  1952 Egypt: overthrow of king, Gamal Abdel Nasser becomes leader two years later.

  1956 Egypt: Suez Canal nationalised, followed by war against UK, France and Israel.

  1958 Yemeni Imamate joins Egypt and Syria to form United Arab Republic.

  1959 Establishment of the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South, bringing together most of the Western and one of the Eastern Aden Protectorates under British domination.

  1962 26 September: Aden Legislative Council votes for Aden to join the federation which becomes the Federation of South Arabia.

  26 September: Sana‘a, Imam Badr is overthrown after ten days of reign, following Ahmed’s death. Yemen Arab Republic proclaimed, supported by Nasser’s Egypt within days.

  1962–70 Civil War in the YAR: republicans defeat pro-Imam royalists, but post-war government includes many royalists.

  1963 Foundation of the National Liberation Front (NLF) in the south, and beginning of armed struggle against Britain on 14 October.

  1967 June: war between Arabs and Israel; closure of Suez Canal; Crater area of Aden taken over by NLF for ten days.

  November: Britain leaves Federation of South Arabia and hands over power to the NLF who establish the People’s Republic of South Yemen (PRSY).

  1967–8 Siege of Sana‘a, fails to oust republicans.

  1970s Migration of Yemeni men to work in Saudi Arabia and other oil-rich states.

  1970 PRSY becomes PDRY (People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen).

  1972 First border war between YAR and PDRY, leads to unity agreement.

  1974 YAR President Abdul Rahman al-Iryani overthrown and replaced by Ibrahim al-Hamdi in a bloodless military coup.

  1977 al-Hamdi assassinated in Sana‘a.

  1978 YAR: President al-Ghashmi assassinated, replaced by Ali Abdullah Saleh in July.

  PDRY: Salmeen overthrown and executed in June.

  October: Yemeni Socialist Party established, Abdul Fattah Ismail becomes president as well as Secretary General of the YSP.

  December: new constitution approved by referendum.

  1979 Second PDRY-YAR war, followed by Unity Agreement.

  1980 PDRY: Ali Nasser Mohammed becomes President and Secretary General of YSP; Abdul Fattah Ismail sent into exile.

  1982 YAR: establishment of the General People’s Congress (GPC).

  1984 YAR: Commercial quantities of oil discovered in Mareb.

  1985 PDRY: Abdul Fattah Ismail returns from exile; power struggle, Hayder al-Attas becomes prime minister.

  1986 PDRY: 13 January ‘events’ lead to short civil war and exile of Ali Nasser Mohammed and his supporters to YAR. Ali Salem al-Beedh becomes Secretary General of YSP.

  1990 22 May: Unification of PDRY and YAR into the Republic of Yemen (ROY); Ali Abdullah Saleh president, Ali Salem al-Beedh vice president.

  1990 Iraq invades Kuwait: ROY votes against use of force at UNSC; 800,000 Yemenis expelled from Saudi Arabia and other GCC states.

  1990s Growth of Zaydi revival movement in governorate of Sa‘ada.

  1991 USSR dissolved; Mengistu overthrown in Ethiopia, Siyad Barre overthrown in Somalia and beginning of civil war there.

  1991 Commercial quantities of oil discovered in Hadramaut. Formation of Islah.

  1993 Parliamentary elections.

  1994 Civil war leads to attempted secession of South under Ali Salem al-Beedh; defeated on 7 July when Saleh’s forces enter Aden.

  Constitution changed to give more power to the president.


  1995 Government accepts IMF advice and adopts Structural Adjustment economic policies.

  Yemen-Eritrea conflict over Hunaish islands; International Court decides in Yemen’s favour in 1998.

  1996 First Five-Year Economic Development Plan issued for 1996-2000.

  1997 Parliamentary elections.

  1999 Presidential elections: Ali Abdullah Saleh elected president.

  2000 Saudi Arabia and ROY sign Jeddah treaty on permanent border agreement.

  USS Cole attacked in Aden port by al-Qa‘ida.

  2001 First elections for local councils.

  Second Five-Year Development Plan 2001-2005.

  Ali Abdullah Saleh rushes to support Bush ‘War against Terror’ after 9/11.

  2002 French super-tanker Limburg attacked in Yemeni waters by al-Qa‘ida.

  Publication of Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) 2003–5.

  2003 Formation of Joint Meeting Parties (JMP) from Islah, Yemeni Socialist Party, Baath, Nasserites, Popular Forces and al Haq. Parliamentary elections.

  US invasion of Iraq, overthrows Saddam Hussein’s Baathist regime.

  2004 First Huthi war: Husayn Badr al-Din al-Huthi killed.

  2005 Second Huthi war.

  2006 Second Presidential Election.

  Formation of the Southern Military Retirees Organisation.

  2007 Third Huthi war, demonstrations for southern secession start.

  2008 Fourth Huthi war.

  2009 Fifth and sixth Huthi wars, the latter labelled ‘Scorched Earth’, involves Saudi air and land forces in support of Saleh regime, Saudi losses.

  Merger of Saudi and Yemeni al-Qa‘ida to form al-Qa‘ida in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP).

  2010 Ceasefire in Huthi wars, Huthis gradually take control of Sa‘ada Governorate.

  2011 Popular uprisings emerge throughout the country, demanding downfall of Saleh regime, jobs, dignity and end to corruption.

  18 March: ‘Friday of Dignity’ massacre: over fifty demonstrators shot by snipers.

  3 June: Saleh severely wounded during Friday prayers in his mosque, many killed; Saleh evacuated to Saudi Arabia for medical treatment.